Articulation and language in sign languages: assessment and intervention

Analysis of a case of a child with deficits in the comprehension and production of British Sign Language (BSL) grammar but not phonology or vocabulary. It recommends specific interventions to improve these grammatical skills.​

^{Morgan, G. [Gary], Herman, R. [Rosalind] & Woll, B. [Bencie]. (2007). Language impairments in sign language: breakthroughs and puzzles. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 42(1), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/13682820600783178}

A book chapter that describes the characteristics of developmental language disorder (DLD) in different sign languages, distinguishing between natural variation, delay, and disorder. It stresses the need for a specific methodology to identify linguistic disorders in deaf and hearing children.

^{Marshall, C. [Chloë] & Morgan, G. [Gary]. (2015). Investigating sign language development, delay, and disorder in deaf children. In M. [Marc] Marschark & P. E. [Patricia Elizabeth] Spencer (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of deaf studies in language (pp. 311–324). Oxford University Press.} 

A clinical neuropsychological assessment approach for assisting with the identification of language disorders in signers. The areas covered include documenting signers' cognitive ability, receptive and expressive language skills, visual processing abilities, motor skills, memory and executive functioning.

^{Hauser, P. C. [Peter C.], Quinto‐Pozos, D. [David] & Singleton, J. L. [Jenny L.]. (2015). Studying sign language disorders: Considering neuropsychological data. In E. [Eleni] Orfanidou, B. [Bencie] Woll & G. [Gary] Morgan (eds.), Research methods in sign language studies: A practical guide (pp. 336–351). John Wiley & Sons.} 

This text explores disorders that affect signing ability, such as linguistic disorders due to deficits in visual processing, motor difficulties and neurological decline. It also compares communication differences in hearing children who acquire signed and spoken languages.

^{Quinto-Pozos, D. [David]. (2014). Considering communication disorders and differences in the signed language modality. In D. [David] Quinto-Pozos (Ed.), Multilingual aspects of signed language communication and disorder (pp. 1–42). Multilingual Matters.} 

This study investigates early language delays (ELDs) in deaf children of signing parents (DODs). It examines the prevalence of ELDs in children aged 3 to 5 years, identifying that some need additional assessment and support to improve language skills in ASL.

^{Morere, D. A. [Donna A.], Allen, T. E. [Thomas E.], Jaeger, M. [Maura] & Winthrop, D. [Dana]. (2024). Sign language delays in deaf 3-to 5-year-olds with deaf parents. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 29(2), 115-133. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enad059}

This study analyses language delay in 13 deaf children with DLD who use BSL. The results show the children have a significant delay in sentence comprehension, expressive grammar and narrative skills, with no correlation with cognition or motor skills.

^{Mason, K. [Kathryn], Rowley, K. [Katherine], Marshall, C. R. [Chloe R.], Atkinson, J. R., Herman, R. [Joanna R.], Woll, B. [Bencie] & Morgan, G. [Gary]. (2010). Identifying specific language impairment in deaf children acquiring British Sign Language: Implications for theory and practice. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151009x484190} 

This study presents the case of "Gregory", a deaf native signer of ASL with difficulties in language production, but with normal comprehension and motor skills. It highlights the need for language therapists trained in sign language to treat these difficulties.

^{Quinto-Pozos, D. [David] & Cooley, F. [Frances]. (2020). A developmental disorder of signed language production in a native deaf signer of ASL. Languages, 5(4), 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages5040040}

Article on the limitations of sign language assessments, especially for diagnosing language disorders and learning difficulties. It analyses some of the standard tools and proposes practices to improve the quality of these assessments.

^{Henner, J. [Jon], Novogrodsky, R. [Rama], Reis, J. [Jeanne] & Hoffmeister, R. [Robert]. (2018). Recent issues in the use of signed language assessments for diagnosis of language disorders in signing deaf and hard of hearing children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 23(4), 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/eny014}

This chapter explores sign language dysfluencies, such as stuttering, in deaf children. It analyses linguistic disorders due to visual processing deficits, motor difficulties and neurological decline, as well as differences in communication.

^{Whitebread, G. [Geoffrey]. (2014). A Review of Stuttering in Signed Languages. In D. [David] Quinto-Pozos (Ed.), Multilingual aspects of signed language communication and disorder (pp. 143–161). Multilingual.}

This chapter analyses dysarthria in sign language, including dysfluencies such as motor and linguistic difficulties. It explores communication disorders in deaf children, such as deficits in visual processing and movements, as well as differences compared with hearing children.

^{Tyrone. M. [Martha]. (2014). Sign Dysarthria: A Speech Disorder in Signed Language. In D. [David] Quinto-Pozos (Ed.), Multilingual aspects of signed language communication and disorder (pp. 162–185). Multilingual.}

This study investigates issues affecting hand orientation when producing words using fingerspelling in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It compares such errors with pronoun reversal errors in spoken language, with suggestive results but needing more research.

^{Shield, A. [Aaron ], Igel, M. [Megan] & Meier, R. P. [Richard P.]. (2022). Are palm reversals the pronoun reversals of sign language? Evidence from a fingerspelling task. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 953019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.953019}

The text explores differences in language skills in deaf people, focusing on difficulties arising from the lack of exposure to sign languages. These factors can contribute to language deprivation and make it difficult to diagnose language disorders.

^{Sánchez-Amat, J. [Jordina], Cedillo Vicente, P. [Pepita] & Quer, J. [Josep]. (2020). Ser sord no implica tenir trastorns del llenguatge. Factors de variació en la capacitat lingüística de les persones amb sordera. Llengua, Societat i Comunicació, (18). https://doi.org/10.1344/LSC-2020.18.5} 

The document provides visual and tactile strategies for teaching phonological awareness to DHH children. It recommends explicit instruction, easy sounds, and short sessions tailored to each child.

^{Friedman Narr, R. A. [Rachel A.]. (2006). Teaching Phonological Awareness With Deaf
and Hard-of-Hearing Students. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 38(4), 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005990603800408}

This study adapts the narrative production test for BSL to Spanish Sign Language, analysing the narrative development of 46 protocols in signing children. The results show that the macrostructure stabilizes at 8 years old and the microstructure develops progressively up to 12 years old.

^{Pérez, M. [Mar], Sanjuán, M. [Mayte], Ardura, A. [Aránzazu], Montero, I. [Ignacio] & Morgan, G. [Gary]. (2024). Evaluación y descripción del discurso narrativo en LSE (Lengua de Signos Española). Revista de Logopedia, Foniatría y Audiología, 44(2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rlfa.2024.100477}

The study analyses the assessment of language development in children with prelingual deafness during the first six years. It considers whether the available data are sufficient to confirm their linguistic development or whether a more comprehensive approach is needed.

^{Lara, R. F., [Raúl Francisco], Angamarca, Y. N. [Yadira Niyireth], Mera, A. L. [Andrea Lorena], Gudiño, E. F. [Erick Fabricio], Altamirano, V. H. [Victor Hugo] & Mena, M. B. [María Belén]. (2023). ¿Basta con el habla? Evaluación del desarrollo del lenguaje en niños sordos prelocutivos durante los primeros seis años de vida. Una revisión sistemática. CoDAS, 35(5), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-1782/20232022084es} 

This chapter analyses the use of PPVT-II and grammar structure comprehension tests (CEG) to assess oral language in deaf children. A group of 13 children with early cochlear implants showed positive progress in vocabulary and grammatical comprehension during early education.

^{de la Fuente Martín, B. [Begoña], Pérez, M. [Mar], Valmaseda, M. [Marian] & Besteiro, J. [Juan]. (2022). Evolución de la lengua oral y de la comprensión lectora en niños sordos con implante coclear escolarizados en centros de enseñanza compartida bilingüe (lo-lse). A A. B. [Ana Belén] Domínguez Gutiérrez, M. [Marian] Valmaseda & C. [Camela] Velasco Alonso, Tendencias actuales en la investigación en lenguaje escrito y sordera (pp. 215-230). Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=8848744}

This article explores research on language development in deaf children, highlighting the differences between natural languages and communication systems. The results show that more research has been done on natural languages, but more is still needed.

^{Taboh, A. R. [Analí R.], Shalom, D. E. [Diego E.], Bosco, V. B. [Valeria B.], Denham, P. J. [Percival J.] & Gattei, C. A. [Carolina A]. (2022). Evaluación del lenguaje oral en niños y niñas con hipoacusia: Los tests estandarizados y la edad auditiva. Revista signos, 55(110), 928-947. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-09342022000300928}

This article explores the literature on language development and interventions with deaf children, divided into two categories: natural languages and communication systems. It concludes that more research is needed, especially on interventions and impact on literacy.

^{Scott, J. A. [Jessica A.] & Dostal, H. M. [Hannah M]. (2019). Language Development and Deaf/Hard of Hearing Children. Education Sciences, 9(2), 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9020135} 

This article describes the development of assessment tests for LSE, adapting previously existing sign language tests. These tests assess vocabulary and receptive and narrative skills to measure students' language proficiency and progress.

^{Valmaseda, M. [Marian] & Pérez, M. [Mar]. (2019). Evaluación de la LSE. Cuatro pruebas en desarrollo: inventario MacArthur-Bates (CDI), prueba de vocabulario, RST-test de habilidades receptivas y PT-test de habilidades narrativas. REVLES, 1, 209-237. https://revles.es/index.php/revles/article/view/25} 

A website that provides an overview of sign language tests, including tests for L1 development, L2 learning, linguistic research and cognitive development, with specific tools to measure these skills.

A website containing several types of LSE assessment test, such as receptive skills testing (LSE-RST), an early vocabulary inventory, narrative discourse testing and a linguistic ecomap. It includes a protocol for recording narrative skills and a translated version of Ritterfeld's ecomap.

​​The CNSE Foundation has adapted the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory (CDI) to Spanish Sign Language (LSE), creating a tool for assessing LSE language skills in children aged 8 to 36 months. ​

Study on the use of dynamic assessment to evaluate narrative skills in deaf children. It distinguishes between learning difficulties and poor language caused by lack of auditory input. It demonstrates positive results in diagnosis and personalized intervention.

^{Asad, A. N. [Areej Nimer], Hand, L. [Linda], Fairgray, L. [Liz] & Purdy, S. C. [Suzanne Purdy]. (2013). The use of dynamic assessment to evaluate narrative language learning in children with hearing loss: Three case studies. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 29(3), 319-342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265659012467994}

Article on the use of dynamic assessment to evaluate ASL lexical skills in two deaf children. Mediated learning experiences (MLEs) allow language learning potential to be identified and specific behaviours associated with language difficulties in deaf signers to be detected.

^{Mann, W. [Wolfgang], Peña, E. D. [Elizabeth D.] & Morgan, G. [Gary]. (2014). Exploring the use of dynamic language assessment with deaf children, who use American Sign Language: Two case studies. Journal of Communication Disorders, 52, 16-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2014.05.002}

This chapter offers an overview of how language is assessed and developed in deaf children, highlighting the role of sensory experience. It includes clinical and educational applications, and recognizes the contributions of researcher Bencie Woll.

^{Herman, R. [Ros], Grove, N. [Nicola], Haug, T. [Tobias], Mann, W. [Wolfgang] & Prinz, P. [Philip]. (2019). The assessment of signed languages. A G. [Gary] Morgan, Understanding Deafness, Language and Cognitive Development. Essays in honour of Bencie Woll (pp. 53-72).  John Benjamins Publishing Company.}

The study describes the work of deaf language specialists (DLSs), deaf professionals who support children with difficulties in learning sign language. Despite parallels with hearing speech therapists, there is a lack of training, resources and recognition of their work.

^{Hoskin, J. [Joanna], Herman, R. [Ros] & Woll, B. [Benice]. (2023). Deaf Language Specialists: Delivering Language Therapy in Signed Languages. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 28(1), 40-52. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enac029} 

This module provides a sign language intervention model with practical resources for professionals working with children with LSE difficulties.

​The CNSE Foundation offers online training for professionals working with children with sign language difficulties, including this specific module in Spanish for LSE interventions.

The LSE Aula website offers educational resources in Spanish Sign Language, including professional profiles, suggested curricula for various ages and teaching materials for teachers and students.

Introductory module on interventions with children who have difficulties in sign language, aimed at professionals and families. It forms part of a wider collection of online training resources on the atypical development of sign language.

Case study of a 5-year-old boy with ASL language impairment, who received a 7-week intervention. Improvements were observed in some aspects of language, such as verbs and pronouns, and his parents were very satisfied.

^{Kelley, L. E. [Lauren E.] & McCann, J. P. [James P]. (2021). Language Intervention Isn't Just Spoken: Assessment and Treatment of a Deaf Signing Child With Specific Language Impairment. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 52(4), 978-992. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_LSHSS-21-00038} 

Website with resources and materials for educational interventions for students with hearing disabilities. These include presentations, adapted texts, stories and tools for professionals, organized by educational stage and learning area to promote inclusion and teaching.

This case study describes the use of a syntax intervention with two deaf children who did not acquire a complete L1. The intervention produced significant improvements in their ability to produce subject-verb-object (SVO) sentence structure in ASL.

^{Ofori-Sanzo, K. [Kimberley], Geer, L. [Leah] & Embry, K. [Kinya]. (2024). Syntax intervention in American Sign Language: an exploratory case study. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 29(2), 105-114. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enad048} 

An application produced by the Association of Sign Language Interpreters and Guide-Interpreters of Catalonia (ACILS) with glossaries of Catalan Sign Language (LSC) for interpreters, deaf people and professionals, including areas such as legal, health and technical terminology. Available for Android and iOS.

An educational platform that offers interactive resources, including manual signs in Catalan Sign Language (LSC), for speech therapy and educational intervention, with activities and materials for students and families in various curricular areas.

The Government of Catalonia offers an online vocabulary of Catalan Sign Language (LSC), with videos showing signs for common terms such as greetings, colours and time. This resource facilitates the learning and dissemination of LSC.

Mobile app with an online dictionary of Catalan Sign Language (LSC). Users can search for signs in Catalan or Spanish and watch a video of the sign being produced, facilitating the learning and consultation of LSC.

Platform with video dictionaries for several European sign languages (LSC, LSE, LSF, DGS). It offers more than 6,000 words organized by topics, facilitating the learning and dissemination of European sign languages.

Online dictionary of signs from different countries, with more than 500,000 signs in 35 sign languages. It facilitates learning and communication between deaf communities around the world.