Main barriers and inequalities of online political participation

Socio-demographic factors are central to examining the differences in participation, whether online or offline. The use of the internet increases or decreases these pre-existing differences.

Its author pays particular attention to the use of social media networks by political actors as well as citizens. Moreover, the study, based on data from 900 countries, discusses multiple factors that affect the digital divide, whether they be economic, cultural, in regard to specific skills or access to technology, and so on.

According to the authors, based on data from 2007, physical location is fundamental to having access to broadband and home internet use, which increases political participation.

_{Sylvester, D. [Dari] and McGlynn, A. [Adam]. (2009). The digital divide, political participation, and place. Social science computer review, 28(1), 64-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439309335148}

The first digital divide depends on socio-demographic factors, but the second level becomes clear in the motivation to use the internet and the user's skills.

_{Min, S. [Seong-Jae]. (2010). From the digital divide to the democratic divide: Internet skills, political interest, and the second-level digital divide in political internet use. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 7(1), 22-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331680903109402}

The authors consider that the digital divide can be analysed in terms of gender, race or class, as well as health care, economic activity and social capital.

_{Robinson, L. [Laura], Cotten, S. [Shelia], Ono, H. [Hiroshi], Quan-Haase, A. [Anabel], Mesch, G. [Gustavo], et al. (2015). Digital inequalities and why they matter. Information, Communication and Society, 18(5), 569-582. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1012532}

The presumed government transparency and accessibility brought about by technology is a theory that is not put into practice in some regions, where some citizens do not have access to the opportunities technology brings with it.

_{Weidman, N. [Nils], Benitez-Baleato, S. [Suso], Hunziker, P. [Philipp], Glatz, E. [Eduard] and Dimitropoulos, X. [Xenofontas]. (2016). Digital discrimination: political bias in Internet service provision across ethnic groups. Science, 353(6304), 1151-1155. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaf5062}

On the one hand, access to technology brings freedom and creates more social participation. On the other hand, there is inequality between those who cannot access it and the concentration of power with those who possess it.

Article that reveals the limitations on African youths' access to technology. While European and North American youths use access to the internet for economic and professional growth, African youths fight against the digital divide, censored participation and acceptability in the internet economy.

_{Counted, V. [Victor] and Arawole, J. [Joyce]. (2016). 'We are connected, but constrained': internet inequality and the challenges of millennials in Africa as actors in innovation. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 5(3). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-015-0029-1}

It uses data collected in 2013 in the metropolitan area of Seoul. The sophistication of ICT is reflected in the digital divide according to different users groups.

_{Myeong, S. [Seunghwan], Kwon, Y. [Yongmin] and Seo, H. [Hyungjun]. (2014). Sustainable E-Governance: the relationship among trust, digital divide, and e-government. Sustainability, 6(9), 6049-6069. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6096049}

The study reveals that geographical differences are not significant but rather related to demographic characteristics. It concludes by establishing a link between the findings and their political aspect.

_{Blank, G. [Grant], Graham, M. [Mark] and Calvino, C. [Claudio]. (2017). Local geographies of digital inequality. Social science computer review, 36(1), 82-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439317693332}

Based on 38 surveys and their metadata, it can be seen that there is a decline in social action and an increase in political engagement.

_{Boulianne, S. [Shelley]. (2009). Does internet use affect engagement? A meta-analysis of research. Political communication, 26(2), 193-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600902854363}

By analysing the structural, representational and interactional dimensions from the perspective of the public sphere, problematic issues in democracy that can destabilize the political communication systems are detected.

_{Dahlgren, P. [Peter]. (2005). The Internet, public spheres, and political communication: dispersion and deliberation. Political communication, 22(2), 147-162. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600590933160}

To this end, the analysis uses survey data from 2011 on various forms of online and offline political participation.

_{Vissers, S. [Sara]. (2013). The Internet and new modes of political participation: online versus offline participation. Information, Communication and Society, 17(8), 937-955. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.867356}

It focuses on the equality, accountability and political representativeness of the initiatives. The results show a need for improvements to increase citizen involvement.

_{Ostling, A. [Aliana]. (2012). Parliamentary informatics projects - who are their users and what is their impact?. JEDEM - EJournal of Edemocrary and Open Government, 4(2), 279-300. https://doi.org/10.29379/jedem.v4i2.144}

She encourages youth to engage more with day-to-day politics and demand more transparency in the processes carried out by governments, using the technologies in which they are experts.

Survey produced during the German elections applying the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), based on the assertions by political campaign professionals who argue that the Web is increasingly more important for communication between candidates and voters.

_{Marcinkowski, F. [Frank] and Metag, J. [Julia]. (2014). Why do candidates use online media in constituency campaigning? An application of the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 11(2), 151-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2014.895690}

These three modes of political participation are reflected differently in the two resources. Using the Heckman model, the most notable differences are reviewed.

_{Anduiza, E. [Eva]. (2010). Online political participation in Spain: the impact of tradicional and Internet resources. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 7(4), 356-368. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681003791891}

A study of 194 political parties and candidates from Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States between 2007 and 2013 was carried out. Their responsiveness is assessed by using two emails.

_{Vaccari, C. [Cristian]. (2014). You've got (no) mail: how parties and candidates respond to e-mail inquiries in western democracies. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 11(2), 245-258. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2014.899536}

By using the Congress Online Model (2003), it seeks to find the most efficient model for communication. The analysis shows that political party leaders are more effective with their own members than with floating voters.

_{Jackson, N. [Nigel]. (2004). Party e-newsletters in the UK. Journal of E-Government, 1(4), 39-62. https://doi.org/10.1300/J399v01n04_04}

A study uses 100 stimuli varying these topics. The results indicate that researchers and users agree with the political and social information but not with the news.

_{Vraga, E. [Emily], Bode, L. [Leticia], Smithson, A. [Anne-Bennett] i Troller-Renfree, S. [Sonya]. (2016). Blurred lines: defining social, news, and political posts on Facebook. Journal of Information, Technology and Politics, 13(3), 272-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2016.1160265}

The use of Facebook in Barack Obama's and Mitt Romney's campaigns is quantified according to the message discipline. It reveals the most incisive issues and the behaviour of their followers.

_{Freelon, D. [Deen]. (2017). Campaigns in control: analyzing controlled interactivity and message discipline on Facebook. Journals of Information Technology and Politics, 14(2), 168-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2017.1309309}

This information is divided into parties, candidates and public for each campaign. It also proposes data collection and selection systems.

_{Jungherr, A. [Andreas]. (2016). Twitter use in election campaigns: a systematic literature review. Journal of Information Techonology and Politics, 13(1), 72-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2015.1132401}

The analysis reveals whether this usage is limited to electoral campaigns or is also present on a day-to-day basis and highlights the differences.

_{Larsson, A. [Anders]. (2015). The EU parliament on Twitter - assessing the permanent online practices of parliamentarians. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 12(2), 149-166. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2014.994158}