Main barriers and inequalities of online political participation

Socio-demographic factors are central to examining the differences in participation, whether online or offline. The use of the internet increases or decreases these pre-existing differences.

Its author pays particular attention to the use of social media networks by political actors as well as citizens. Moreover, the study, based on data from 900 countries, discusses multiple factors that affect the digital divide, whether they be economic, cultural, in regard to specific skills or access to technology, and so on.

According to the authors, based on data from 2007, physical location is fundamental to having access to broadband and home internet use, which increases political participation.

The first digital divide depends on socio-demographic factors, but the second level becomes clear in the motivation to use the internet and the user's skills.

The authors consider that the digital divide can be analysed in terms of gender, race or class, as well as health care, economic activity and social capital.

The presumed government transparency and accessibility brought about by technology is a theory that is not put into practice in some regions, where some citizens do not have access to the opportunities technology brings with it.

On the one hand, access to technology brings freedom and creates more social participation. On the other hand, there is inequality between those who cannot access it and the concentration of power with those who possess it.

Article that reveals the limitations on African youths' access to technology. While European and North American youths use access to the internet for economic and professional growth, African youths fight against the digital divide, censored participation and acceptability in the internet economy.

It uses data collected in 2013 in the metropolitan area of Seoul. The sophistication of ICT is reflected in the digital divide according to different users groups.

The study reveals that geographical differences are not significant but rather related to demographic characteristics. It concludes by establishing a link between the findings and their political aspect.

Based on 38 surveys and their metadata, it can be seen that there is a decline in social action and an increase in political engagement.

By analysing the structural, representational and interactional dimensions from the perspective of the public sphere, problematic issues in democracy that can destabilize the political communication systems are detected.

To this end, the analysis uses survey data from 2011 on various forms of online and offline political participation.

It focuses on the equality, accountability and political representativeness of the initiatives. The results show a need for improvements to increase citizen involvement.

She encourages youth to engage more with day-to-day politics and demand more transparency in the processes carried out by governments, using the technologies in which they are experts.

Survey produced during the German elections applying the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), based on the assertions by political campaign professionals who argue that the Web is increasingly more important for communication between candidates and voters.

These three modes of political participation are reflected differently in the two resources. Using the Heckman model, the most notable differences are reviewed.

A study of 194 political parties and candidates from Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States between 2007 and 2013 was carried out. Their responsiveness is assessed by using two emails.

By using the Congress Online Model (2003), it seeks to find the most efficient model for communication. The analysis shows that political party leaders are more effective with their own members than with floating voters.

A study uses 100 stimuli varying these topics. The results indicate that researchers and users agree with the political and social information but not with the news.

The use of Facebook in Barack Obama's and Mitt Romney's campaigns is quantified according to the message discipline. It reveals the most incisive issues and the behaviour of their followers.

This information is divided into parties, candidates and public for each campaign. It also proposes data collection and selection systems.

The analysis reveals whether this usage is limited to electoral campaigns or is also present on a day-to-day basis and highlights the differences.